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	<title>Hyperg&#233;o</title>
	<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/</link>
	
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<item xml:lang="en">
		<title>Volcano</title>
		<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article492</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article492</guid>
		<dc:date>2010-09-08T10:06:43Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Damase Mouralis</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Risks</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>resource</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Volcano</dc:subject>

		<description>A volcano can be defined as a relief feature where the molten magma has reached the earth's crust, either on land or under the sea. This relief feature can take the form of a more or less conical hill of very variable size, or of a depression in cases where there is only a crater or a caldera. According to the type of magma (fluidity and homogeneity of composition vary), and according to whether it is under the sea or on land (and in the latter case depending on presence or absence of (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot666" rel="tag"&gt;Volcano&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;A volcano can be defined as a relief feature where the molten magma has reached the earth's crust, either on land or under the sea. This relief feature can take the form of a more or less conical hill of very variable size, or of a depression in cases where there is only a crater or a caldera. According to the type of magma (fluidity and homogeneity of composition vary), and according to whether it is under the sea or on land (and in the latter case depending on presence or absence of surface water), the arrival of the magma at the surface can cause either an accumulation of lava (lava eruption) or an explosion (explosive eruption, leading to the deposit of pyroclastics or tephra). An active volcano is one for which there are records of an eruption in historical times. According to the Smithsonian Institute Global Volcanology Programme, 550 volcanoes are thought to correspond to this definition, and this does not include sub-marine activity. However the example of the Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines shows the limitations of the definition: the volcano was considered as inactive until the eruption in 1991 which was one of the largest in the 20th century in terms of the volume of matter produced.
&lt;br&gt;
Localisation. Worldwide, localisation of volcanoes is determined by plate tectonics. The main volcanoes are situated in subduction zones (island arcs and the Pacific &#8220;ring of fire&#8221;) and along ocean ridges (Iceland). Certain volcanoes also occur at intra-plate locations, in connection with the formation of rifts or the existence of hot spots, or again in situations of collision (the Caucasus). On a larger scale, the frequently observed alignment of volcanic formations along preferential axes (for instance the Cha&#238;ne dePuys in Auvergne, France) also demonstrates the role of the tectonic plates in channelling the magma to the surface.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In the Western world, volcanoes have been documented since Antiquity, and numerous eruptions in the Mediterranean area have been described by the classical authors. The most famous of these descriptions is probably that provided by Pliny the Younger who observed the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD which destroyed Herculaneum and Pompei. However the geological explanation for volcanic activity remained the subject of debate for centuries.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;From the 18th century there were two opposing theories for the origins of volcanoes. According to neptunism, volcanic activity was a superficial phenomenon that had no relationship with the deep regions of the earth. In contrast, plutonism held that volcanic rocks originated from the deep magma. As early as 1752, J.E. Guettard recognised deep volcanic origins for the Puy de D&#244;me (Auvergne, France) and the local stone known as &#8220;la pierre de Volvic&#8221;. Plutonism gradually gained ground, in particular from the middle of the 19th century with the progress in methods of analysis, both physical (polarising microscope) and chemical.
Modern volcanology progressed fast, using the major eruptions to analyse volcanic processes and associated formations. Thus in the 20th century two large eruptions, among others, contributed to the advancement of knowledge: the eruption in Martinique of Mount Pel&#233;e (1902) and that of Mount St Helens, USA (1980).&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Classically, four types of volcanic activity have been distinguished, on the basis of the viscosity of the lava and the explosive phenomena: Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian and Pelean. This typology has been dropped today because &lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11/puce-32883.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' /&gt; i) it does not account for the full diversity of types of volcano and volcanic activity (such as maars, phreato-magmatic eruptions, lava volcanoes or under-sea volcanic activity), and &lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11/puce-32883.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' /&gt; ii) in the course of its history a polygenic volcanic feature can exhibit several types of activity.
It is usual today to distinguish between monogenic volcanic formations (Strombolian cone, maar dome) and polygenic formations (composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes). These two categories can at least partially be distinguished by the spatial and temporal scales of their activity. Monogenic formations are &#8220;small&#8221; features formed over a &#8220;short&#8221; period of time, and, in theory, in the course of a single eruptive episode characterised by a single eruptive mode. In contrast, polygenic formations are large, they remain active over thousand of years and exhibit a wide variety of eruptive modes. Phases of volcanic activity are followed by phases of remission, and likewise &#8220;edification&#8221; phases are followed by destruction phases (explosive activity, emission of pyroclastic material, formation of caldera).
&lt;br&gt;
Man and volcanoes.
In a work published in 1958 L'homme et les volcans, (coll. G&#233;ographie humaine, Gallimard), E. Aubert de la Rue was the first French geographer to offer a synthetic review of volcanic zones. After describing the wide diversity of volcanic eruptions and the resulting formations, and the different volcanic areas worldwide, the author entitled the sixth and last chapter of his book &#8220;Le volcan utile&#8221; (the useful volcano).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Indeed, volcanoes can provide &#171;&lt;strong&gt;resources&lt;/strong&gt;&#187; (energy and raw materials). Different types of lava have been used in architecture (for instance Clermont Ferrand cathedral, France, in Volvic stone), or at earlier dates, lava is noted in prehistoric artefacts. Obsidian was thus a much sought-after resource in Palaeolithic and Neolithic human groups, and trading in obsidian was active across the whole of the Middle East (Cauvin et al (dir), 1998). On the slopes of volcanoes agriculture often draws benefit from fertile soils, in particular those forming on basic lavas. Likewise, volcanic ash enriches soils in nutrient substances (nitrogen, potassium, etc) that contribute to the fertility of these regions. In tropical areas, the high population densities in rural Indonesia or the Philippines are an indication of the richness of many of the soils that form on volcano slopes. Today certain volcanic rocks, such as perlite (hydrated obsidian) or pumice are used in industry.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Volcanoes carry mystery and myth, and numerous legends are associated with them, often in connection with divinities, as can be seen in the places of worship often perched on volcanic features. Myths and legends associating volcanoes with divinities can be found in a wide range of societies, from Mediterranean Antiquity to New Zealand and pre-Columbian South America (De Wever, 2003). Today, volcanic landscapes often have a positive popular image and attract certain forms of tourism to island destinations (from the Aeolian (Lipari) Islands to Reunion Island and Pacific archipelagos), or to inland sites (such as Yellowstone).&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Resources provided by volcanoes thus explain why high densities of population tend to accumulate around them, despite the &#171;&lt;strong&gt;risks&lt;/strong&gt;&#187; associated with volcanic activity. It is usual to distinguish seven volcanic risks: lava flows, fallout of ash and rock, pyroclastic flows, gases, lahars, avalanches of debris and tsunamis. The management of volcanic risk is based on the identification of warning signs (gas emissions, steam eruptions, seismic activity etc) that are characteristic of rising magma in the vent, and also on recognition of the different types of eruption. The Armero disaster when Nevado del Ruyz erupted in 1985, which led to lahars that caused more than 20 000 deaths, is the perfect counter-example. While the early warning signs were indeed spotted by scientists (the melting of the ice cap at the summit of the volcano) the information issued to the population was both imprecise and inadequate. The population stayed shut up in their homes, which would have been appropriate in case of a Plinian eruption, while the lahar risk, on the contrary, required an evacuation of the population to interfluvial zones. The disorganisation of the Columbian authorities was largely responsible for this inadequate information process (Voight, 1990).&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Volcanic eruptions are momentary phenomena, the products of which fossilise both paleo-topographies and former human occupation. Tephra are therefore frequently used for the purpose of geo-morphological, paleo-environmental or (geo)-archaeolgical reconstitutions, in particular in cases where dating is possible using radiometric techniques (&#171;&lt;strong&gt;geo-chronology&lt;/strong&gt;&#187;). In geomorphology, lava flows that have been eroded on either side by river valleys to form plateaus, or plan&#232;zes, are used to retrace the evolution of different regions, (the Limagne area, for instance, in Auvergne, France). Numerous archaeological sites have been dated by way of the pyroclastics associated with the fossils. For instance the site at Dmanissi (Georgia) has yielded the oldest European Homo fossils, which were dated 1.81 MY on the basis of a layer of volcanic ash (De Lumley et al, 2002). In addition, certain particularly well-known tephra are sought in marine or continental sedimentary sequences to serve as chrono-stratigraphic markers. The Laacher See tephra (derived from the eruption of maar from the Eiffel volcano, Germany, around 12900 years BP) serve in all reconstructions for the European Late Glacial period from the west of Italy to Scandinavia. Likewise Santorini tephra (the Santorini eruption occurred around 1645 BC, putting an end to the Minoan civilisation and generating the Atlantis myth), form a reference level in the eastern Mediterranean zone, the Black Sea and western Anatolia.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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<item xml:lang="en">
		<title> Longitude</title>
		<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article491</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article491</guid>
		<dc:date>2010-09-08T09:37:16Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>H. C.</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Earth</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Latitude</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Longitude</dc:subject>

		<description>To know the position of a place on &#171;earth,&#187; we need to know its position in &#171;latitude&#187; and longitude, that is to say its coordinates. In Jules Verne's well-known novel Les enfants du Capitaine Grant, the Captain's children have a document eaten away by sea water giving the coordinates of the place where the Captain has been shipwrecked. But while the latitude indication is legible, the longitude is not. In order to find their father, they will have to travel to the known degree (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot617" rel="tag"&gt;Latitude&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot665" rel="tag"&gt;Longitude&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;To know the position of a place on &#171;&lt;strong&gt;earth,&lt;/strong&gt;&#187; we need to know its position in &#171;&lt;strong&gt;latitude&lt;/strong&gt;&#187; and longitude, that is to say its coordinates. In Jules Verne's well-known novel Les enfants du Capitaine Grant, the Captain's children have a document eaten away by sea water giving the coordinates of the place where the Captain has been shipwrecked. But while the latitude indication is legible, the longitude is not. In order to find their father, they will have to travel to the known degree of latitude, 37&#176;11' South, and then undertake a tour round the world.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The height of the sun above the horizon at midday enables calculation of the distance from the Equator in degrees of latitude. This explains how, early in history, men were able to know their position in terms of latitude with ever-greater accuracy.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The problem of longitude was far more delicate. Determining longitude depends on having the ability to measure time without too much approximation. Longitude is a matter for astronomy and calculation, and the issue required techniques that were difficult to perfect.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The sun was the first clock. At the highest point in the sun's apparent daily course it is midday or noon, and indeed in some mountain ranges there are &#8220;south peaks&#8221; or &#8220;aiguilles du midi&#8221;, summits above which, for the inhabitants of the valley, the sun passes in the middle of the day.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The rotation of the earth around its axis passing through the two poles means that at any point on a large circle the centre of which is the centre of the earth, it is midday at the same moment on one half of the circle extending from one pole to another, and midnight on the other symmetrical half. It is not the same sun time on any two of these circles, however close they might be: in Paris it is not the same time as in the Bois de Boulogne or the Bois de Vincennes, both on the outskirts of the city. If it is possible to accurately measure the difference in time between the moment when the sun reaches its highest point in one place and the moment when it is reached in another place, the angular distance between these two places can then be measured.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In other words, what is needed is a sufficiently accurate clock or chronometer. It is set to midday when in a first place the sun reaches the highest point in its apparent course (the local noon). In a second place, at the local noon, the difference in relation to midday in the first place is read on the chronometer.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The difference between the two midday readings then enables a simple calculation of the angular distance between the two points.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The crucial issue is to possess the clock, and this requires micro-mechanical techniques that were only really mastered from the 18th century. Up till then measurement of time was ensured using various systems such as the hourglass, the water clock, or huge pendulum clocks that were un-transportable and very inaccurate. Navigators measured distance covered by estimation, that is to say on the basis of the speed of the ship, which was itself calculated in rather imprecise manner. Calculations were affected by all sorts of factors, such as the speed of ocean currents, and in fact the sailors never really knew where they were in terms of longitude. This can be clearly seen from ancient maps. The positions given for places are relatively accurate for latitude, even at early dates, while enormous errors appear for longitude. This explains why numerous Pacific island were discovered twice or even three times. A navigator would place an island on a map, and a few years later another navigator would &#8220;discover&#8221; an island, positioning it not at all in the same place. This generated conflict between French and English navigators who considered, in all good faith, that they had been the first to take possession of an island in the name of their king.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Before the 18th century, various methods of measurement had been suggested. Some were rather &#8220;hair-brained&#8221; schemes, such as the idea of anchoring pontoons every 600 miles across the Atlantic, and firing flares visible from a hundred miles. Other systems were more scientific, based on measurements of the stars or the moon, but they required exceedingly complex observations and calculations.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The challenge was to invent a clock that was not only accurate in ordinary conditions, but that, once it was embarked on a vessel, would not be offset by the incessant and often abrupt movements of the sea and storms, nor by dilation and contraction of certain metal parts, since longitude needed to be measured in northerly and equatorial zones alike. It was not a distinguished scientist but a humble clock-maker, John Harrison, who built the first clock enabling calculation of longitude with an adequate degree of approximation. The first experiment took place on a voyage from London to Lisbon in 1735, and it yielded good results, but Harrison was the object of derision and rejection by the academics in the British Admiralty and the Board of Longitude that had been set up by the British government. These notables could not accept that a mere craftsman should have, by way of an assemblage of cogs and balance wheels, found the solution to a problem they were trying to find in the stars. For a long period poor Harrison was refused the payment promised to the person who would find a way of calculating longitude. Harrison, and later his son, spent many years perfecting their clocks, and reducing their size and weight (the first prototype weighed 75 pounds).&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Today we are able to measure time to a billionth of a second, and in all events it is sufficient to listen to radio navigation bulletins or use GPS to know or calculate the latitude and longitude of a place.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;There then remained one problem to be solved, and it was not scientific but purely political: the problem of the prime meridian.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The story of the calculation of longitude is told in detail in a fascinating little book, Longitude, by Dava Sobel (1995 for the edition in English, Fourth Estate Ltd), and for the French-language edition 1996 (J.C.Latt&#232;s)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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	</item>
<item xml:lang="en">
		<title>Isotropy/anisotropy</title>
		<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article490</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article490</guid>
		<dc:date>2010-09-08T09:06:43Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Th&#233;r&#232;se Saint Julien</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Interaction</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>system</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Central places</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Gradient </dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Isotropy/anisotropy</dc:subject>

		<description>An environment or medium is said to be isotropic if its physical properties are identical in all directions. A &#171;system&#187; will be termed isotropic if its (macroscopic) properties are invariant in relation to a particular direction, and therefore none of these properties is directionally dependent. Should one of its properties be directional, the system is not isotropic, but anisotropic. A physical magnitude can also be said to be anisotropic or isotropic according to whether or not it is (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?rubrique44" rel="directory"&gt;Spatial Concepts&lt;/a&gt;

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot664" rel="tag"&gt;Isotropy/anisotropy&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;An environment or medium is said to be isotropic if its physical properties are identical in all directions. A &#171;&lt;strong&gt;system&lt;/strong&gt;&#187; will be termed isotropic if its (macroscopic) properties are invariant in relation to a particular direction, and therefore none of these properties is directionally dependent. Should one of its properties be directional, the system is not isotropic, but anisotropic. A physical magnitude can also be said to be anisotropic or isotropic according to whether or not it is dependent upon the direction according to which it is measured. In the primary, restricted meaning of the terms, isotropy and anisotropy are properties of macroscopic bodies or ensembles. In this general acceptation, given that time and space are physical magnitudes, since they are measurable, it is usual to talk about isotropy or anisotropy in reference to them.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Geographical space is heterogeneous and anisotropic. Here the notions of heterogeneity and anisotropy are close. The notion of homogeneity describes the degree of similitude or &#8220;equalness&#8221; of a variable or a combination of characteristics in a geographical ensemble. The heterogeneity of a geographical system thus resides in the fact that its parts, elements or places are differentiated. Its anisotropy refers to the orientations in space, to differentiations arising from directional dependencies that are constituent parts of its structuring. Hierarchised nodes and axes that organise circulation flows, &#171;&lt;strong&gt;gradients&lt;/strong&gt;&#187; and asymmetries are signs of anisotropy.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;In relation to geographical space, isotropy (or anisotropy) is always defined in relation to a certain level of resolution or generalisation of the geographical units involved. Isotropy, observed on a certain scale and for a defined number of criteria, is a measure, always relative, of directional independence.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;The question of isotropy in geographical space has arisen in various contexts of reflection or action.
One of these is the field of spatial management. It is approached by way of the issues of &#8220;territorial equity&#8221;, that is to say the spatial dimensions of social justice. The aim is to define a geographical configuration liable to provide all people with the same conditions of access to public services, employment, and the various advantages of life in a society. Territorial equity and isotropy of a given space are relevant when the issue is to determine whether certain dimensions of anisotropy lead to unfair differentiations in access within a given territory.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;A very different context is that of the theories and models used in spatial analysis. To explain the localisation and the distribution of human activities, these models generally introduce the hypothesis of an isotropic space, at least from the point of view of some of its properties. Distance, which slows &#171;&lt;strong&gt;interactions&lt;/strong&gt;&#187; and causes the &#8220;value&#8221; of places to vary according to their relative geographical situation, is then allocated a dominant differentiating influence. The hypothesis of an isotropic space is found for instance in the centre-periphery theory, the &#171;&lt;strong&gt;central place theory&lt;/strong&gt;&#187;, the theory of the diffusion of innovation, or again the theory of returns from property ownership. In the models that have been developed from these theories, as in models of more narrowly gravitational form, Euclidian measurement, well suited to the representation of distance in an isotropic space, has in general been used to give an account of distances measured within that space. The hypothesis of an isotropic space has been widely criticised as being unrealistic. It has often served as a pretext for rejecting outright any proposals for spatial analysis aiming to develop a more nomothetic geography.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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	</item>
<item xml:lang="en">
		<title>Hydrosystem</title>
		<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article489</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article489</guid>
		<dc:date>2010-09-01T10:03:07Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Laurent Touchart</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>resilience</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Anthropization</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Biocoenosis</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Drainage Basin</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Hydrosystem</dc:subject>

		<description>The term hydrosystem can be loosely defined as a system made up of water and the associated aquatic environments within a delimited geographical entity. This term, which has been in existence for some forty years, has considerably evolved in meaning. These changes can be approached from a thematic angle on the one hand, and from a spatial viewpoint on the other. For its thematic evolution, the term appeared at the start of the 1960s among English-language geo-morphologists. It was the (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot657" rel="tag"&gt;Drainage Basin&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot663" rel="tag"&gt;Hydrosystem&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;The term hydrosystem can be loosely defined as a system made up of water and the associated aquatic environments within a delimited geographical entity. This term, which has been in existence for some forty years, has considerably evolved in meaning. These changes can be approached from a thematic angle on the one hand, and from a spatial viewpoint on the other. For its thematic evolution, the term appeared at the start of the 1960s among English-language geo-morphologists. It was the physical geographer Richard John Chorley who is generally acknowledged as the inventor of the concept, on account of his lifetime commitment to developing a systemic approach to geomorphology. However in his pioneer article in 1962 on &quot;geomorphology and the general theory of systems&quot;, he did not create the actual term, since he merely referred to a &quot;stream system&quot; in his approach to open systems. &lt;br&gt;
Up to the present day, the term has in fact retained a strong connotation of river dynamics. It is most frequently used in this discipline, rather than in hydrology or biology. This is why the hydrosystem has in some cases been viewed as the only a-biotic part of the aquatic ecosystem, i.e. the &#171;&lt;strong&gt;biotope&lt;/strong&gt;&#187; with which organisms living in the water sustain relationships. However, since it has also come into use among biologists, and with the advent of pluri-disciplinary study, the concept has been widened to include the relationships between two complex entities, the aquatic biotope and the aquatic &#171;&lt;strong&gt;biocoenosis&lt;/strong&gt;&#187;. Thus the hydrosystem has been seen as more or less equivalent to an aquatic ecosystem. Finally, with the evolution of geographical study, which generated the term in the first place, human action has been introduced, aligning the hydrosystem with the notion of geographical aquatic environment. Concerning the evolution of the term from a spatial viewpoint, the hydrosystem, because it originated in river geomorphology, was first of all a set of longitudinal relationships between upstream and downstream within a &#8220;&lt;strong&gt;drainage basin&lt;/strong&gt;&#8221;. But this portion of space also comprises lateral relationships between the minor and major channels, between the water and the sedimentary and plant formations of the alluvial plain, and also oxbow lakes (cutoffs), wetlands and stagnant waters of the main channels, which are all themes that have been given particular consideration in recent years. A third dimension taken into account concerns vertical relationships between underground and surface waters. Thus the hydrosystem, incorporating longitudinal, lateral and vertical interrelations, is a term that is often used to refer to a drainage basin within which there is a hydrographic network that can be studied in systemic manner for the purpose of producing management recommendations. The atmospheric and climatic components have also, justifiably, been pointed to, in addition to the three above dimensions, so that the hydrosystem then becomes a portion of geographical space, more or less natural, more or less shaped by man (see &#171;&lt;strong&gt;anthropization&lt;/strong&gt;&#187;), within which the water cycle occurs, and within which, for epistemological reasons, it is running water that is the first object of study. Outside the context of water courses, the term hydrosystem is very little used as such, even with the qualification &quot;lake&quot; or &quot;lacustrine&quot;. It is replaced by the term limnosystem, the epistemology of which has had its own specific career. The notion of the limnosystem, which appeared in the 1980s, was above all used by limnologists to justify the joint study of a lake and its feeder basin, positioning themselves in opposition to Forel's initial conception of limnology, that of the study of the lacustrine microcosmos. Present research shows a tendency to widen the concept downstream, and in particular to the outlet, while at the same time maintaining the lake in its central position within the relationships existing between it and the surrounding space. Thus the limnosystem is viewed as a space in which interrelations occur between a volume of lake water, the biomass, sediment, and the immediate atmospheric layer, and which is linked to exchange media both upstream and downstream. &lt;br&gt;
The hydrosystem, whether lake or river, has no dimension as such, and can range from a pond or puddle to the Amazon in its basin. Each hydrosystem has a size that depends on its components, and its overall balance results from the permanent responses of its components and the re-forming of the relationships that hold them together. The spatial scale of the hydrosystem is thus related to its temporal scale, in particular by way of its inertia and the shifts that occur in the re-establishment that follows a natural or man-made disruption, where the time required and the ability to re-establish a balance form the &#171;&lt;strong&gt;resilience&lt;/strong&gt;&#187; of the system. This notion is essential for apprehending damage in the form of water pollution or eutrophication, and the capacity for self-purification that the hydrosystem possesses.
Laurent Touchart&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
		</content:encoded>


		

	</item>
<item xml:lang="es">
		<title>Topograf&#237;a</title>
		<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article488</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article488</guid>
		<dc:date>2010-08-05T16:52:42Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>es</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>B. E.</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>S.I.G.</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Lugar</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>longitud</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>latitud</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Carta</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Topograf&#237;a</dc:subject>

		<description>Topograf&#237;a Del griego topos: &#171;lugar.&#187; La topograf&#237;a se define originalmente como la exacta descripci&#243;n y delimitaci&#243;n de las caracter&#237;sticas de un lugar particular que puede ser tanto una ciudad como cualquier parte de la superficie terrestre. Esta primera acepci&#243;n fue completada en los diccionarios del siglo XIX (Larousse y Littr&#233;) por el arte de representar por medio del dise&#241;o, a trav&#233;s del croquis o la &#171;carta&#187;, una forma cualquiera a gran &#171;escala&#187;. Pierre George, en su diccionario de (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot662" rel="tag"&gt;Topograf&#237;a&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;Topograf&#237;a&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Del griego topos: &lt;strong&gt;&#171;lugar.&#187;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;La topograf&#237;a se define originalmente como la exacta descripci&#243;n y delimitaci&#243;n de las caracter&#237;sticas de un lugar particular que puede ser tanto una ciudad como cualquier parte de la superficie terrestre. Esta primera acepci&#243;n fue completada en los diccionarios del siglo XIX (Larousse y Littr&#233;) por el arte de representar por medio del dise&#241;o, a trav&#233;s del croquis o la &lt;strong&gt;&#171;carta&#187;&lt;/strong&gt;, una forma cualquiera a gran &lt;strong&gt;&#171;escala&#187;&lt;/strong&gt;. Pierre George, en su diccionario de la geograf&#237;a (1970) s&#243;lo retiene la definici&#243;n original: &#8220;Descripci&#243;n de la configuraci&#243;n de un lugar, o descripci&#243;n de los lugares, es decir de una porci&#243;n de espacio terrestre&#8221;. Este segundo sentido ancla a la topograf&#237;a en el dominio de las t&#233;cnicas. Se trata de procedimientos que permiten la ejecuci&#243;n y la explotaci&#243;n de las observaciones que conciernen a la posici&#243;n, la forma, las dimensiones y la identificaci&#243;n de los elementos que existen en la superficie del suelo. La t&#233;cnica topogr&#225;fica tiene por objeto realizar relevamientos de cartas y de planos. Consiste en ubicar en el plano y en elevaci&#243;n todos los fen&#243;menos de superficie repartidos en una trama geod&#233;sica. Para esto, la topograf&#237;a utiliza las t&#233;cnicas de la planimetr&#237;a (representaci&#243;n de los detalles en dos dimensiones, en proyecci&#243;n plana) y la altimetr&#237;a (explotaci&#243;n de las observaciones relativas a la determinaci&#243;n de las altitudes).&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Para representar y localizar los elementos existentes en la superficie terrestre, la carta topogr&#225;fica constituye un &#250;til que no se limita s&#243;lo a las representaciones del relieve. Se emplean una red de coordenadas geogr&#225;ficas (&lt;strong&gt;&#171;latitud&#187;&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;&#171;longitud&#187;&lt;/strong&gt;), un sistema de orientaci&#243;n y de signos convencionales para representar los fen&#243;menos visibles en superficie. Estas operaciones se apoyan en una escala de reducci&#243;n variable seg&#250;n las cartas y los pa&#237;ses. El m&#233;todo de figuraci&#243;n de la altitud y el relieve se aplica por medio de puntos, cotas, tramas estompage, tonos batim&#233;tricos y sobre todo curvas de nivel (l&#237;neas imaginarias que unen todos los puntos situados a la misma altura). La utilizaci&#243;n de la inform&#225;tica permite recrear la topograf&#237;a de un lugar gracias al uso de un modelo num&#233;rico de terreno (MNT). Se trata de un registro, de tres dimensiones, de la realidad geogr&#225;fica en un fichero constituido por una malla regular que contiene en cada casilla informaciones concernientes a la altitud, la latitud y la longitud. El desv&#237;o entre cada malla puede ser muy variable (inferior al metro o superior al kil&#243;metro) e integrar cualquier sistema de proyecci&#243;n. Los modelos num&#233;ricos de terreno permiten proyectar en computadora la topograf&#237;a de un lugar en tres dimensiones. Algunos utilizan gamas de colores en las cuales la intensidad del color de cada p&#237;xel es proporcional al valor de altura correspondiente. Algunos &lt;strong&gt;&#171;S.I.G. (sistemas de informaci&#243;n geogr&#225;ficos&#187;&lt;/strong&gt;) integran la tercera dimensi&#243;n bajo la forma de MNT. Las dos acepciones originales de la palabra topograf&#237;a alud&#237;an, ya sea a un g&#233;nero, ya a una pr&#225;ctica, pero ninguna de las dos acordaba, desde un principio, una importancia particular al relieve. Hoy en d&#237;a, en la mayor&#237;a de los textos geogr&#225;ficos, el t&#233;rmino topograf&#237;a se ha vuelto sin&#243;nimo, por desviaci&#243;n del sentido original, de configuraci&#243;n del relieve terrestre. El t&#233;rmino topograf&#237;a ha sido confundido a menudo con el de orograf&#237;a, que se refiere a la descripci&#243;n del relieve. De este modo, se ha podido considerar que el an&#225;lisis topogr&#225;fico &#8220;tiene por objeto describir los diversos elementos que forman el relieve&#8221; (Archambault, 1967). Esta confusi&#243;n entre topograf&#237;a y releve se debe en parte al peso que tuvo en cierta &#233;poca el estudio del relieve y de la geomorfolog&#237;a en la geograf&#237;a f&#237;sica y en la marcha geogr&#225;fica en general. La toma de conciencia del papel de la estructura geol&#243;gica en el fa&#231;onnement de la configuraci&#243;n terrestre contribuy&#243; a esta asociaci&#243;n entre topograf&#237;a y relieve (Nardy, 1982). La pr&#233;gnance, en los estudios geogr&#225;ficos, de un ejercicio can&#243;nico como el comentario de cartas topogr&#225;ficas, contribuy&#243; igualmente a esta derivaci&#243;n de sentido. Institucionalizado y codificado por E. de Martonne con la creaci&#243;n de la agregaci&#243;n en geograf&#237;a en 1943, el comentario de cartas topogr&#225;ficas fue considerado como el ejercicio geogr&#225;fico por excelencia desde los a&#241;os 1920, y la carta topogr&#225;fica como un instrumento indispensable de investigaci&#243;n y de conocimientos de los lugares durante la primera mitad del siglo XX. La carta y sus usos realizaron de este modo, en esta &#233;poca, la s&#237;ntesis entre las tres definiciones posibles de la topograf&#237;a. Bernard Elissalde&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bibliograf&#237;a: &lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; M.Archambault, R.Lh&#233;naff et J.R.Vanney, 1967, Documents et m&#233;thodes pour le commentaire de cartes (tome1), Par&#237;s, ed. Masson. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; De Martonne.E, Cholley.A, 1934, Interpr&#233;tation g&#233;ographique de la carte d'Etat-major, Par&#237;s, A.Colin.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; E.Jaurand, 2001, La codification et l'institutionnalisation d'un exercice canonique, in G.Baudelle et alii : G&#233;ographes en pratiques, P.U.R.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		</content:encoded>


		

	</item>
<item xml:lang="es">
		<title>Tierra</title>
		<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article487</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article487</guid>
		<dc:date>2010-08-05T16:32:06Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>es</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>B. E.</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Ecumene</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Antropizaci&#243;n</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>&#193;ntroposistema</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Territorio</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Tierra</dc:subject>

		<description>Tierra Seg&#250;n que se escriba con o sin may&#250;scula, esta palabra puede significar, en franc&#233;s y en otras lenguas latinas, tanto el planeta como la superficie que constituye la parte continental de este planeta (un avi&#243;n &#8220;aterriza&#8221;) o incluso la pel&#237;cula de suelo que sirve de soporte a las actividades agr&#237;colas (la tierra f&#233;rtil). Desde su materialidad para la funci&#243;n productiva (tierra con trigales, tierras en jach&#232;re descanso), el t&#233;rmino abarc&#243;, por extensi&#243;n, la posici&#243;n (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot542" rel="tag"&gt;&#193;ntroposistema&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot584" rel="tag"&gt;Territorio&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot661" rel="tag"&gt;Tierra&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;Tierra&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Seg&#250;n que se escriba con o sin may&#250;scula, esta palabra puede significar, en franc&#233;s y en otras lenguas latinas, tanto el planeta como la superficie que constituye la parte continental de este planeta (un avi&#243;n &#8220;aterriza&#8221;) o incluso la pel&#237;cula de suelo que sirve de soporte a las actividades agr&#237;colas (la tierra f&#233;rtil). Desde su materialidad para la funci&#243;n productiva (tierra con trigales, tierras en jach&#232;re descanso), el t&#233;rmino abarc&#243;, por extensi&#243;n, la posici&#243;n ocupada en un sistema social (paisanos sin tierra, tierras se&#241;oriales, propietario de terrenos terrien) enjambant uniendo as&#237; las separaciones entre lo f&#237;sico y lo social.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Esta polisemia del sentido com&#250;n se apoya sobre una multiplicidad de usos en varios dominios cient&#237;ficos. Para los astr&#243;nomos, la Tierra es ante todo un planeta cuyos movimientos se insertan en el conjunto del sistema solar. En el espacio, la Tierra gira de oeste a este sobre un eje inclinado en 23&#186;27' en relaci&#243;n con el plano de la ecl&#237;ptica. Las medidas de la duraci&#243;n de las dos rotaciones terrestres han servido de referencia para la definici&#243;n de los a&#241;os, del d&#237;a y de la ubicaci&#243;n de los desfases horarios entre los diferentes puntos del globo. La forma de la Tierra se emparienta con la de un geoide imperfecto, ligeramente achatado en los polos, cuyo di&#225;metro var&#237;a en 12.713 km en los polos a alrededor de 12.756 km en el Ecuador, y presenta, en este lugar, una circunferencia de 40.000 km. Para los geof&#237;sicos que se interesan en el funcionamiento interno de la corteza terrestre, la Tierra funciona como una m&#225;quina t&#233;rmica. En el interior de la Tierra, el manto terrestre est&#225; animado por lentos movimientos de convecci&#243;n que transportan el calor interno hacia su superficie. Los volcanes, los puntos calientes y las dorsales oce&#225;nicas son los lugares de aumento de la materia en fusi&#243;n hacia la superficie; contribuyen a la renovaci&#243;n de la corteza terrestre, a los desplazamientos de las placas litosf&#233;ricas y a la formaci&#243;n de los relieves continentales.&lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;En relaci&#243;n con estas disciplinas, los ge&#243;grafos han agregado aqu&#237; el an&#225;lisis de las acciones de &lt;strong&gt;&#171;antropizaci&#243;n&#187;&lt;/strong&gt; y de humanizaci&#243;n de los medios f&#237;sicos que pretenden o han pretendido repousser los l&#237;mites de la &lt;strong&gt;&#171;ecumene&#187;&lt;/strong&gt;, incorporando en &#233;sta grados diversos de artificializaci&#243;n de los medios f&#237;sicos. Como otras disciplinas, la Geograf&#237;a se interesa tanto en las grandes masas y vol&#250;menes que participan en la configuraci&#243;n de la superficie de la Tierra, como en los intercambios que se establecen permanentemente entre las envolturas s&#243;lidas, gaseosas y l&#237;quidas de nuestro planeta y que se extienden desde la litosfera hasta la atm&#243;sfera, pasando por la biosfera y la hidrosfera. Pero este inter&#233;s por los sistemas f&#237;sicos est&#225; condicionado por sus campos de investigaciones espec&#237;ficas que tratan, ya sea sobre el vasto dominio de las relaciones Naturaleza/sociedades, ya sea sobre las interacciones entre los lugares mismos. M&#225;s ampliamente, los ge&#243;grafos concentran su atenci&#243;n sobre todo lo que concurre a fa&#231;onner lo que varios de entre ellos han denominado la Faz de la Tierra. Seg&#250;n el grado de ocupaci&#243;n humana de las tierras emergidas, tienen tendencia a reservar el empleo del t&#233;rmino tierra en la toponimia, a las regiones &#225;rticas y ant&#225;rticas o a los lugares mal explorados y mal conocidos: Tierra de Baffin, Tierra Adela, Tierra de Amhem, etc&#8230; Explorando, nombrando, midiendo y figurando figurant los diferentes continentes, as&#237; se han apropiado los ge&#243;grafos de la escritura y la representaci&#243;n cartogr&#225;fica de la Tierra. M&#225;s all&#225; de los clivages disciplinares, cada vez m&#225;s cient&#237;ficos y responsables se rejoignent re&#250;nen sobre la necesidad de considerar la Tierra en su globalidad y aprehender su funcionamiento y sus disfuncionamientos como una totalidad que trasciende los cloisonnements continentales, nacionales o &#8220;civilizacionales&#8221;, y que justifican peri&#243;dicamente la organizaci&#243;n de un &#8220;pico de la Tierra&#8221;. Esta concepci&#243;n de la existencia de un sistema Tierra reposa sobre la idea de que los componentes de los medios f&#237;sicos y de los ordenamientos humanos son interdependientes y retroact&#250;an unos con otros. Desde este punto de vista, la Tierra es un sistema que recibe y produce energ&#237;a. Ella depende del aporte del rayonnement solar y de sus variaciones seg&#250;n los lugares y los momentos del a&#241;o. Estas diferencias regionales en el balance de radiaci&#243;n son compensadas por transferencias de energ&#237;a (circulaci&#243;n atmosf&#233;rica, corrientes marinas) entre las diferentes partes del globo. Grandes ciclos bioqu&#237;micos (agua, carbono, azote, ox&#237;geno, etc.) condicionan la renovaci&#243;n de las sustancias necesarias para los seres vivientes, mientras que el sobreconsumo de las energ&#237;as f&#243;siles libera gases susceptibles de modificar la composici&#243;n de la atm&#243;sfera y en consecuencia de poner en peligro a las sociedades humanas. &lt;br&gt;
Estas interacciones y estas retroacciones entre los sistemas f&#237;sicos y los sistemas sociales permiten identificar y analizar los m&#250;ltiples &lt;strong&gt;&#171;&#225;ntroposistemas&#187;&lt;/strong&gt; presentes en la superficie del globo. Los procesos que los animan as&#237; como sus m&#225;s o menos grandes capacidades de intervenir sobre su regulaci&#243;n condicionan el devenir de los recursos disponibles, de la biodiversidad y, por consiguiente, de la vida de la Tierra. El an&#225;lisis de los &#225;ntroposistemas permite subrayar la antig&#252;edad y la variabilidad de la ocupaci&#243;n de los diferentes continentes y de sus doblamientos, de las tramas territoriales y de los diversos procesos de ocupaci&#243;n del espacio que constituyen autant de tantas respuestas salidas de la diversidad de las organizaciones sociales. En su investigaci&#243;n de inteligibilidad de la ocupaci&#243;n humana de la Tierra, los ge&#243;grafos acuerdan hoy en d&#237;a en reconocer que m&#225;s all&#225; de esta diversidad aparente, la mayor parte de los modos de organizaci&#243;n del espacio terrestre dependen de algunas l&#243;gicas elementales referidos a cualesquiera sean los continentes y cualesquiera sean las &#233;pocas. La Tierra es tambi&#233;n la ocasi&#243;n de un encuentro entre lo espiritual y lo biol&#243;gico. En tanto que solo y &#250;nico h&#225;bitat de la especie humana, ella es el objeto de posturas y conflictos donde estos dos elementos vitales de la vida humana se confrontan y/o se completan. El car&#225;cter ef&#237;mero de la vida terrestre, en la escala del tiempo astron&#243;mico, ha sido siempre, en las creencias humanas, opuesto al del sin&#243;nimo de eternidad. Aunque en un sentido metaf&#243;rico el contacto con el suelo (&#8220;tener los pies en la tierra&#8221;) puede aparecer, para los humanos, como un signo de estabilidad s&#237;quica o de ressourcement; en la imagen del gigante Anteo quien en la mitolog&#237;a encontraba su energ&#237;a vital en contacto con el suelo terrestre. Los diferentes ciclos de vida y de muerte se manifiestan y se c&#244;toient sobre la Tierra, as&#237; como las m&#250;ltiples temporalidades ideales, sociales y materiales a las cuales se confronta la condici&#243;n humana. Si se retoma la formulaci&#243;n de Fran&#231;ois Durand-Dast&#233;s, se puede avanzar que esta &#8220;Tierra de los hombres&#8221; (A.de Saint Exup&#233;ry) est&#225; sometida a las interacciones de dos &#8220;memorias&#8221; (las memorias de Gaia): la memoria &#8220;mensaje&#8221; que se transmite y evoluciona al ritmo de las generaciones y de las visiones del mundo; y la memoria inscrita espacialmente sobre la epidermis de la Tierra que, seg&#250;n modalidades variables, retroact&#250;a sobre la primera. En todo momento y en todo lugar, estos mecanismos se combinan para hacer de la Tierra un espacio geogr&#225;fico. &lt;br&gt; Ver tambi&#233;n: &lt;strong&gt;&#171;territorio&#187;&lt;/strong&gt;. &lt;br&gt; Bernard Elissalde&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;Referencias bibliogr&#225;ficas:&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Berque.A, 2000, Ecoum&#232;ne Introduction &#224; l'&#233;tude des milieux humains, ed Belin ,
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Brunet.R et O.Dollfus, 1990, Mondes Nouveaux, G&#233;ographie Universelle, Tome1 Belin/RECLUS, &lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Buttimer. A, 1993, Geography and the human spirit. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. -Durand-Dast&#233;s.F, 1991, La m&#233;moire de Ga&#239;a, colloque G&#233;opoint 1990, Universit&#233; d'Avignon -Pinchemel.G et P., 1988, La Face de la Terre (ed.A.Colin)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>Jean Gottmann</title>
		<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article486</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article486</guid>
		<dc:date>2010-08-03T13:57:50Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Georges Pr&#233;v&#233;lakis</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Jean Gottmann </dc:subject>

		<description>Jean Gottmann (1915-1994) Jean Gottmann fut un g&#233;ographe fran&#231;ais atypique. Ouvert aux changements mondiaux et aux influences anglo-saxonnes, il a d&#233;fendu la tradition g&#233;ographique en la modernisant et en essayant d'&#233;liminer ses faiblesses th&#233;oriques et m&#233;thodologiques. Il se distingue ainsi &#224; la fois de ceux qui sont rest&#233;s ancr&#233;s dans une approche r&#233;gionale classique et de ceux qui ont suivi les courants &#171; r&#233;volutionnaires &#187;. Ses id&#233;es &#233;taient souvent d&#233;cal&#233;es par rapport au (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?rubrique96" rel="directory"&gt;G&#233;ographes&lt;/a&gt;

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot660" rel="tag"&gt;Jean Gottmann &lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;Jean Gottmann (1915-1994)
Jean Gottmann fut un g&#233;ographe fran&#231;ais atypique. Ouvert aux changements mondiaux et aux influences anglo-saxonnes, il a d&#233;fendu la tradition g&#233;ographique en la modernisant et en essayant d'&#233;liminer ses faiblesses th&#233;oriques et m&#233;thodologiques. Il se distingue ainsi &#224; la fois de ceux qui sont rest&#233;s ancr&#233;s dans une approche r&#233;gionale classique et de ceux qui ont suivi les courants &#171; r&#233;volutionnaires &#187;. Ses id&#233;es &#233;taient souvent d&#233;cal&#233;es par rapport au consensus de la discipline.
La vie de Jean Gottmann r&#233;sume une grande partie de l'histoire du XXe si&#232;cle. N&#233; en 1915 &#224; Kharkov, dans une famille d'industriels juifs, Jean Gottmann a grandi &#224; Paris, ou s'installa sa famille adoptive suite &#224; l'assassinat des ses deux parents en 1917. Pendant et apr&#232;s ses &#233;tudes &#224; la Sorbonne, il est devenu le disciple et le plus proche collaborateur d'Albert Demangeon. Sa carri&#232;re en France fut interrompue par la Deuxi&#232;me Guerre mondiale &#224; la suite des pers&#233;cutions anti-juives. Arriv&#233; aux Etats-Unis en 1941, le jour de l'attaque japonaise &#224; Pearl Harbour, il a amorc&#233; une &#171; transhumance intellectuelle &#187; (selon sa propre formule) qui a dur&#233; presque trente ans, jusqu'&#224; son &#233;lection &#224; la chaire de G&#233;ographie de l'Universit&#233; d'Oxford.&lt;br&gt; Pendant cette longue p&#233;riode, il se d&#233;pla&#231;ait constamment entre plusieurs villes et entre les deux continents, en remplissant des fonctions et des responsabilit&#233;s d'enseignement, de recherche et de politique. La liste est impressionnante. Il fut entre autres : chercheur associ&#233; &#224; l'Institute for Advanced Studies de Princeton de 1942 a 1965 ; enseignant-chercheur &#224; l'Universit&#233; Johns Hopkins de 1943 a 1948 ; conseiller au Minist&#232;re de l'Economie en 1945 ; directeur d'&#233;tudes aux Nations-Unies de 1946 a 1947 ; charg&#233; de recherches au CNRS de 1948 &#224; 1951 ; enseignant-chercheur &#224; l'Institut d'&#233;tudes politiques de Paris de 1947 &#224; 1960 ; professeur &#224; l'Ecole de hautes &#233;tudes en sciences sociales de 1960 a 1983 ; finalement professeur &#224; Oxford de 1968 a 1983. Des recherches et des &#233;tudes, souvent financ&#233;es par des fondations prestigieuses comme la Twentieth Century Fund s'intercalaient entre ses activit&#233;s d'enseignement et de politique. Il voyageait beaucoup pour participer &#224; des colloques, &#224; des conf&#233;rences, etc.&lt;br&gt;
Au cours de ses d&#233;placements, Jean Gottmann s'&#233;tait constitu&#233; un r&#233;seau de coll&#232;gues, d'amis et de disciples qui couvrait le monde, du Canada au Japon &#224; travers les Etats-Unis, le Royaume-Uni, la France, l'Italie, la Gr&#232;ce, et Isra&#235;l. Constantin Doxiadis, l'urbaniste grec qui a cr&#233;e la soci&#233;t&#233; de l'Ekistique (Ekistics), fut son alter ego jusqu'&#224; sa mort en 1975. La mobilit&#233; g&#233;ographique de Jean Gottmann trouve son corollaire dans la diversit&#233; de ses recherches : g&#233;ographie rurale, g&#233;ographie urbaine, g&#233;ographie &#233;conomique, am&#233;nagement, g&#233;opolitique, g&#233;ographie culturelle. Au sein d'une production scientifique tr&#232;s riche et vari&#233;e, on peut privil&#233;gier deux grands th&#232;mes o&#249; la contribution de Jean Gottmann fut pionni&#232;re et d&#233;terminante : la Megalopolis et la conceptualisation de la G&#233;ographie politique. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11/puce-32883.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' /&gt; 1.	La Megalopolis
Jean Gottmann a publi&#233; en 1961 une &#233;tude g&#233;ographique de la c&#244;te est des Etats-Unis, une r&#233;gion incluant Boston, New York, Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphie, toute une s&#233;rie d'autres villes, de zones urbanis&#233;es, etc. Intitul&#233; Megalopolis, son ouvrage apparu aux Am&#233;ricains comme une &#171; &#233;tude r&#233;gionale &#187; typique d'une g&#233;ographie fran&#231;aise dont Jean Gottmann &#233;tait consid&#233;r&#233; comme un pur produit. Sans trahir cette tradition, l'&#339;uvre de Jean Gottmann allait pourtant bien au-del&#224;. Le terme de Megalopolis conceptualisait une r&#233;alit&#233; urbaine &#233;mergente : un &#233;norme espace fonctionnel, sans continuit&#233; spatiale de ses composantes. L'analyse de cette &#233;volution permettait d'anticiper l'organisation de l'espace g&#233;ographique dans les pays d&#233;velopp&#233;s. Le caract&#232;re proph&#233;tique de Megalopolis explique son &#233;norme impact, direct ou indirect. Gottmann avait r&#233;ussi &#224; transformer radicalement le regard de l'ensemble des sciences humaines sur le fait urbain.
En proposant le th&#232;me de Megalopolis, Gottmann ne se sentait pas enferm&#233; dans la branche urbaine de la G&#233;ographie. Megalopolis constituait une fen&#234;tre privil&#233;gi&#233;e pour porter le regard sur les grandes questions g&#233;opolitiques de l'&#233;poque. Quel &#233;tait le fondement de la puissance am&#233;ricaine ? Les innovations &#233;conomiques, sociales, culturelles et spatiales concentr&#233;es dans la c&#244;te est des Etats-Unis apportaient une r&#233;ponse &#224; cette question. Gottmann les a interpr&#233;t&#233;es en proposant une s&#233;rie de nouvelles formulations, comme l'apparition et l'importance du secteur &#171; quaternaire &#187;, le fonctionnement de la Megalopolis comme &#171; p&#233;pini&#232;re &#187; des mutations technologiques, son r&#244;le enfin comme articulation (hinge) entre une Am&#233;rique profonde et le reste du monde. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11/puce-32883.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' /&gt; 2.	La G&#233;ographie politique
Dans trois ouvrages (La politique des Etats et leur g&#233;ographie, &#201;l&#233;ments de G&#233;ographie Politique et The Significance of Territory) et une s&#233;rie d'articles, Jean Gottmann aborda la th&#233;orie de la G&#233;ographie politique. Une occasion importante pour prendre la parole sur les rapports entre G&#233;ographie et Politique lui a &#233;t&#233; donn&#233;e par son mentor fran&#231;ais, Andr&#233; Siegfried, qui lui a demand&#233; d'assurer un enseignement &#224; l'Institut d'&#233;tudes politiques de Paris. Convaincu du r&#244;le primordial du politique en G&#233;ographie, Jean Gottmann envisageait ainsi d'intervenir dans le d&#233;bat g&#233;n&#233;ral sur la th&#233;orie g&#233;ographique. Apres la Deuxi&#232;me Guerre mondiale, cette question &#233;tait au centre des pr&#233;occupations des g&#233;ographes. Jean Gottmann resta &#233;tranger aux diverses &#171; r&#233;volutions &#187; (n&#233;o-positiviste, marxiste) qui ont contest&#233; l'empirisme d'une tradition consid&#233;r&#233;e comme &#171; idiographique &#187; et qui ont cherch&#233; inspiration &#224; l'ext&#233;rieur de la discipline (math&#233;matiques, &#233;conom&#233;trie, historisme). Pour d&#233;passer son principal handicap &#233;pist&#233;mologique (la dichotomie Home/Nature), tout en pr&#233;servant la sp&#233;cificit&#233; de sa curiosit&#233; (la diversit&#233; de l'espace g&#233;ographique), Gottmann a propos&#233; une r&#233; conceptualisation de la G&#233;ographie. Le concept-cl&#233; fut le cloisonnement de l'espace g&#233;ographique. Carrefour de l'organisation de l'espace g&#233;ographique, ce concept est interpr&#233;t&#233; comme le jeu complexe entre les forces de Circulation (concept d&#233;j&#224; existant) et celles de l'Iconographie (concept nouveau : expression des ressources culturelles des soci&#233;t&#233;s leur permettant de se d&#233;fendre face aux effets d&#233;stabilisants des exc&#232;s de la Circulation). Cette r&#233;organisation &#171; psychosomatique &#187; de la mati&#232;re g&#233;ographique, ainsi que la r&#233;flexion de Jean Gottmann sur la territorialit&#233; sont pass&#233;es relativement inaper&#231;ues pendant la Guerre Froide. Ils se r&#233;v&#232;lent proph&#233;tiques aujourd'hui et constituent des pistes pr&#233;cieuses pour interpr&#233;ter les grandes mutations de notre monde. Le grands d&#233;bats de l'apr&#232;s Guerre Froide (&#171; fin de l'Histoire &#187; &#171; fin des territoires &#187;, &#171; conflit des civilisations &#187;) peuvent &#234;tre relativis&#233;s et contextualis&#233;s par les concepts &#171; gottmaniens &#187;. &lt;br&gt;
G&#233;ographe hors norme dans le monde acad&#233;mique de la Guerre Froide, Jean Gottmann fut relativement marginalis&#233; au sein des structures et des institutions qui l'ont accueilli : le milieu intellectuel fran&#231;ais, les universit&#233;s am&#233;ricaines, ou l'universit&#233; d'Oxford. Georges Pr&#233;v&#233;lakis&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;Principaux ouvrages de Jean Gottmann
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; L'Am&#233;rique, Hachette, Paris, 1949 (r&#233;&#233;ditions actualis&#233;es : 1954, 1960)
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; A Geography of Europe, New York, Henry Holt, 1950 (r&#233;&#233;ditions actualis&#233;es : 1951, 1954, 1962, 1969)
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; La politique des &#201;tats et leur g&#233;ographie, Armand Colin, Paris, 1952
&#201;l&#233;ments de G&#233;ographie Politique, 2 fascicules, Paris, Les Cours de Droit, 1955
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; &#201;tudes sur l'&#201;tat d'Isra&#235;l et le Moyen Orient, Paris, Armand Colin, 1959
Megalopolis : The Urbanized Northeastern Seaboard of the United States, New York, The Twentieth Century Fund, 1961
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Essais sur l'Am&#233;nagement de l'Espace habit&#233;, Paris, Laye, Mouton et Co., 1966
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Virginia in our century, Charlottesville, The University Press of Virginia,1969
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; The significance of Territory, Charlottesville, The University Press of Virginia, 1973
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Centre and Periphery : Spatial Variation in Politics, Beverly Hills et Londres, Sage Publications, 1980
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Megalopolis Revisited. Twenty-five Years Later, Institute for Urban Studies, monograph n&#176;. 6, University of Maryland, Baltimore, 1987
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Pour la liste des publications de Jean Gottmann, voir : Muscara Luca, Bibliographie complete de Jean Gottmann, Cybergeo, no 64, 27-11-1998 &lt;a href='http://cybergeo.revues.org/index1849.html' class='spip_out' rel='nofollow' &gt;http://cybergeo.revues.org/index184...&lt;/a&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Travaux sur Jean Gottmann.
Deux colloques internationaux sur l'&#339;uvre de Jean Gottmann ont eu lieu &#224; Paris : &lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Sur les pas de Gottmann. Les Iconographies europ&#233;ennes. Repr&#233;sentations, id&#233;ologies, territoires, g&#233;opolitique, organis&#233; par la Commission de g&#233;ographie politique du Comite national fran&#231;ais de g&#233;ographie le 7 et le 9 octobre 1996. Publications issues de ce colloque : &#8220;Iconographies&#8221;, GeoJournal, 2000, 52/4 (&#233;diteurs Georges Pr&#233;v&#233;lakis, Herman van der Wusten). &#8220;In the steps of Jean Gottmann&#8221;, Ekistics, 2003, 418-419, 420-421, 422-423 (&#233;diteurs Calogero Muscara, Panayis Psomopoulos)
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; L'orbite de la g&#233;ographie de Jean Gottmann, organis&#233; par la Bibliotheque nationale de France, l'Universit&#233; Paris-Sorbonne et la Soci&#233;t&#233; de G&#233;ographie le 29 et le 30 mars 2005. Publication issue de ce colloque : &#171; Une g&#233;ographie dans l'histoire &#187;, La G&#233;ographie, no 1523 hors s&#233;rie, janvier 2007&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Voir aussi :
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Bruneau, Michel, &#8220;De l'icone &#224; l'iconographie, du religieux au politique, r&#233;flexions sur l'origine byzantine d'un concept gottmanien&#8221;, Annales de G&#233;ographie, 616 (2000), 563-579.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Johnston R.J., Clout H.D., Hall P.G., &#8220;Jean Gottmann, 1915-1994&#8221;, Geographers : Biobibliographical Studies, 25 (2006) 42-59.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Muscar&#224; Luca, La strada di Gottmann : tra universalismi della storia e particolorismi della geografia, Rome : Nexta Books, 2005.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Pr&#233;v&#233;lakis Georges, &quot;La notion de territoire dans la pens&#233;e de Jean Gottmann&quot;, G&#233;ographie et Cultures, Paris, L'Harmattan, no 20, 1996, p.81-92. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Pr&#233;v&#233;lakis Georges, &#8220;Circulation/Iconographie contre Homme/Nature : Jean Gottmann et la &#171; d&#233;licatesse de la causalit&#233; &#187; &#8221;, Pierre-Jean Thumerelle (&#233;diteur), Explications en g&#233;ographie. D&#233;marches, strat&#233;gies et mod&#232;les, DIEM/SEDES, Paris, 2001, p. 40-55
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Pr&#233;v&#233;lakis Georges, &#8220;Lire Jean Gottmann&#8221;, G&#233;ographie, &#233;conomie, soci&#233;t&#233;, vol. 3, no 1, 2001, p. 153-159.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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	</item>
<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>Le territoire selon Guy Di M&#233;o</title>
		<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article485</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article485</guid>
		<dc:date>2010-08-03T13:12:45Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Guy Di M&#233;o</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Repr&#233;sentation</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Territoire</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject> La r&#233;gion, espace v&#233;cu</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Identit&#233; territoriale</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Le territoire selon Guy Di M&#233;o</dc:subject>

		<description>Qu'est-ce que le territoire ? Nous proposons ici une d&#233;finition provisoire du terme. Elle tient compte des enseignements tir&#233;s de nos premiers constats quant &#224; la nature de l'espace g&#233;ographique, consid&#233;r&#233; sous ses diff&#233;rentes facettes, de l'espace produit &#224; l' espace v&#233;cu. Elle avance quelques hypoth&#232;ses plus g&#233;n&#233;rales que nous nous efforcerons de v&#233;rifier par la suite.Pour ce qui a trait aux enseignements que l'on peut tirer de ce premier chapitre, nous (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?rubrique90" rel="directory"&gt;Autres conceptions du territoire&lt;/a&gt;

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot35" rel="tag"&gt;Repr&#233;sentation&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot123" rel="tag"&gt;Territoire&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot536" rel="tag"&gt; La r&#233;gion, espace v&#233;cu&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot604" rel="tag"&gt;Identit&#233; territoriale&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot659" rel="tag"&gt;Le territoire selon Guy Di M&#233;o&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;Qu'est-ce que le territoire ?&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Nous proposons ici une d&#233;finition provisoire du terme. Elle tient compte des enseignements tir&#233;s de nos premiers constats quant &#224; la nature de l'espace g&#233;ographique, consid&#233;r&#233; sous ses diff&#233;rentes facettes, de l'espace produit &#224; l' espace v&#233;cu. Elle avance quelques hypoth&#232;ses plus g&#233;n&#233;rales que nous nous efforcerons de v&#233;rifier par la suite.Pour ce qui a trait aux enseignements que l'on peut tirer de ce premier chapitre, nous retiendrons deux &#233;l&#233;ments constitutifs majeurs du concept territorial, sa composante espace social et sa composante &lt;strong&gt;&#171; espace v&#233;cu &#187;&lt;/strong&gt;.
&lt;br&gt;
Nous avons vu que l'espace social qualifie des lieux de la biosph&#232;re tiss&#233;s par l'entrelacs des rapports sociaux et spatiaux. Il s'agit donc de l'identification d'une nouvelle fibre, &#224; la fois spatiale du social et sociale du spatial, d&#233;crypt&#233;e par le moyen d'une d&#233;marche qui objective des rapports d&#251;ment r&#233;pertori&#233;s et analys&#233;s par le chercheur, g&#233;ographe ou anthropologue.&lt;br&gt;
Le concept d'espace v&#233;cu exprime, au contraire, le rapport existentiel, forc&#233;ment subjectif, que l'individu socialis&#233; (donc inform&#233; et influenc&#233; par la sph&#232;re sociale) &#233;tablit avec la Terre. Il s'impr&#232;gne de valeurs culturelles refl&#233;tant, pour chacun, l'appartenance &#224; un groupe localis&#233;. Sa connaissance passe par l'&#233;coute des acteurs, par la prise en compte de leurs pratiques, de leurs &lt;strong&gt;&#171; repr&#233;sentations &#187;&lt;/strong&gt; et de leurs imaginaires spatiaux&lt;br&gt;
Sur le socle que dresse la r&#233;alit&#233; socioculturelle, le territoire t&#233;moigne d'une appropriation &#224; la fois &#233;conomique, id&#233;ologique et politique (sociale donc) de l'espace par des groupes qui se donnent une repr&#233;sentation particuli&#232;re d'eux-m&#234;mes, de leur histoire, de leur singularit&#233;. [&#8230;&#8230;]
Cela dit, le concept de territoire, qui r&#233;unit les deux notions d'espace social et d'espace v&#233;cu, leur adjoint aussi, &#224; notre sens, quatre significations suppl&#233;mentaires que nous pr&#233;sentons pour l'instant comme autant d'hypoth&#232;ses de travail :
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11/puce-32883.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' /&gt; 1. Il d&#233;crit, en se fondant sur les donn&#233;es (spatiales) de la g&#233;ographie, l'insertion de chaque sujet dans un groupe, voire dans plusieurs groupes sociaux de r&#233;f&#233;rence. Au bout de ces parcours, au terme de ces itin&#233;raires personnels, se construit l'appartenance, l'identit&#233; collective. Cette exp&#233;rience concr&#232;te de l'espace social conditionne aussi notre rapport aux autres, notre alt&#233;rit&#233;. Elle la m&#233;diatise.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11/puce-32883.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' /&gt; 2. Le territoire traduit un mode de d&#233;coupage et de contr&#244;le de l'espace garantissant la sp&#233;cificit&#233; et la permanence, la reproduction des groupes humains qui l'occupent. C'est sa dimension politique. Elle illustre la nature intentionnelle, le caract&#232;re volontaire de sa cr&#233;ation.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11/puce-32883.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' /&gt; 3. Am&#233;nag&#233; par les soci&#233;t&#233;s qui l'ont successivement investi, il constitue, en troisi&#232;me lieu, un remarquable champ symbolique. Certains de ses &#233;l&#233;ments, instaur&#233;s en valeurs patrimoniales, contribuent &#224; fonder ou &#224; raffermir le sentiment d'identit&#233; collective des hommes qui l'occupent. Comme le remarquait Maurice Halbwachs, parce que le territoire appartient &#224; l'ordre des repr&#233;sentations sociales, il se manifeste &#171; dans des formes mat&#233;rielles, de nature souvent symbolique ou embl&#233;matique &#187; (M. Halbwachs, 1938).
La territorialit&#233; symbolique rev&#234;t une importance sociale encore plus grande si l'on admet, toujours avec Halbwachs, que &#171; tout se passe comme si la pens&#233;e d'un groupe ne pouvait na&#238;tre, survivre, et devenir consciente d'elle m&#234;me sans s'appuyer sur certaines formes visibles de l'espace &#187;. Sur de telles bases symboliques, le territoire identitaire devient un puissant outil de mobilisation sociale. Denis Retaill&#233; se demande &#224; ce propos si le territoire, par sa double fonction politique et symbolique, par les effets de solidarit&#233; qu'il engendre, n'est pas au bout du compte &#171; une forme spatiale de la soci&#233;t&#233; qui permet de r&#233;duire les distances &#224; l'int&#233;rieur et d'&#233;tablir une distance infinie avec l'ext&#233;rieur, par-del&#224; les fronti&#232;res ? &#187; (D. Retaill&#233;, 1997).
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/local/cache-vignettes/L8xH11/puce-32883.gif&quot; width='8' height='11' alt=&quot;-&quot; style='height:11px;width:8px;' /&gt; 4. L'importance du temps long, de l'histoire en mati&#232;re de construction symbolique des territoires, retient l'attention de la plupart des auteurs. Tr&#232;s repr&#233;sentatif de ce point de vue, Michel Mari&#233; estime que &#171; l'espace a besoin de l'&#233;paisseur du temps, de r&#233;p&#233;titions silencieuses, de maturations lentes, du travail de l'imaginaire social et de la norme pour exister comme territoire &#187; (M. Mari&#233;, 1982).
Ainsi d&#233;fini dans son acception la plus large et la plus globale, le territoire multidimensionnel participe de trois ordres distincts. Il s'inscrit, en premier lieu, dans l'ordre de la mat&#233;rialit&#233;, de la r&#233;alit&#233; concr&#232;te de cette Terre d'o&#249; le terme tire son origine. &#192; ce titre, il convient de consid&#233;rer la r&#233;alit&#233; g&#233;ographique du monde, la mani&#232;re dont la biosph&#232;re enregistre l'action humaine et se transforme par ses effets. Il rel&#232;ve, en deuxi&#232;me lieu, de la psych&#233; individuelle. Sur ce plan, la territorialit&#233; s'identifie pour partie &#224; un rapport a priori, &#233;motionnel et pr&#233;social de l'Homme &#224; la Terre. Il participe, en troisi&#232;me lieu, de l'ordre des repr&#233;sentations collectives, sociales et culturelles. Elles lui conf&#232;rent tout son sens et se r&#233;g&#233;n&#232;rent, en retour, au contact de l'univers symbolique dont il fournit l'assise r&#233;f&#233;rentielle.
Ajoutons que le territoire, par nature multiscalaire, se rep&#232;re &#224; diff&#233;rentes &#233;chelles de l'espace g&#233;ographique : du champ de la localit&#233; &#224; l'aire de l'Etat-nation, ou &#224; celle des entit&#233;s plurinationales. Loin de se clore, comme son homologue politique, le territoire de la g&#233;ographie reste r&#233;solument ouvert, pr&#234;t &#224; &#233;pouser toutes les combinaisons spatiales que tissent les collectivit&#233;s humaines dans les limites de l'&#233;tendue terrestre, comme dans celles de l'exp&#233;rience individuelle.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Guy Di M&#233;o. Extrait de G&#233;ographie sociale et territoire, 1998, (Editions Nathan)&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Voir aussi : &lt;strong&gt;&#171; territoire &#187;&lt;/strong&gt;, &lt;strong&gt;&#171; identit&#233; territoriale &#187;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Halbwachs.M , 1938, La morphologie sociale, ed A.Colin
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Mari&#233;.M, 1982, Un territoire sans nom, pour une approche des soci&#233;t&#233;s locales, Librairie des M&#233;ridiens
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Retaill&#233;.D, 1997, Le Monde du g&#233;ographe, Presses FNSP&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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<item xml:lang="fr">
		<title>Emmanuel de Martonne </title>
		<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article484</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article484</guid>
		<dc:date>2010-07-31T15:03:58Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>fr</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Pascal Marty</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Cartographies</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>R&#233;alisme</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Emmanuel de Martonne </dc:subject>

		<description>Emmanuel de Martonne (Chabris 1873-Sceaux 1955) est une des figures dominantes de la g&#233;ographie fran&#231;aise de la premi&#232;re moiti&#233; du XXe si&#232;cle. Disciple de P. Vidal de la Blache, il est connu en France comme le fondateur de la g&#233;ographie physique g&#233;n&#233;rale et plus particuli&#232;rement comme un sp&#233;cialiste de g&#233;omorphologie. Il a, pendant une carri&#232;re qui a dur&#233; pr&#232;s de cinquante ans, exerc&#233; une profonde influence sur la g&#233;ographie acad&#233;mique par son enseignement, son r&#244;le au sein des institutions (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot658" rel="tag"&gt;Emmanuel de Martonne &lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;Emmanuel de Martonne (Chabris 1873-Sceaux 1955) est une des figures dominantes de la g&#233;ographie fran&#231;aise de la premi&#232;re moiti&#233; du XXe si&#232;cle. Disciple de P. Vidal de la Blache, il est connu en France comme le fondateur de la g&#233;ographie physique g&#233;n&#233;rale et plus particuli&#232;rement comme un sp&#233;cialiste de g&#233;omorphologie. Il a, pendant une carri&#232;re qui a dur&#233; pr&#232;s de cinquante ans, exerc&#233; une profonde influence sur la g&#233;ographie acad&#233;mique par son enseignement, son r&#244;le au sein des institutions universitaires nationales et internationales (notamment l'Union G&#233;ographique Internationale) et par son abondante &#339;uvre scientifique.
Apr&#232;s, Rennes (1899-1905) et Lyon (1905-1909), De Martonne est nomm&#233; &#224; la facult&#233; des lettres de Paris, &#224; la chaire de G&#233;ographie, apr&#232;s le d&#233;part &#224; la retraite de Vidal de la Blache. Il y forme plusieurs g&#233;n&#233;rations d'&#233;tudiants en donnant une grande importance aux excursions de terrain, &#224; la &lt;strong&gt;&#171; cartographie &#187;&lt;/strong&gt; et aux commentaires de cartes ou encore &#224; la repr&#233;sentation des volumes du relief par blocs diagrammes.
De Martonne contribue &#224; consolider la position institutionnelle de la g&#233;ographie universitaire dans une direction fid&#232;le au projet de P. Vidal de la Blache. Il a l'ambition de fonder la g&#233;ographie physique g&#233;n&#233;rale par la synth&#232;se de disciplines s&#233;par&#233;es (cartographie, morphologie, climatologie, botanique et zoologie). Sur le plan institutionnel, il r&#233;alise cette synth&#232;se, d'une mani&#232;re quelque peu paradoxale, au sein des facult&#233;s de Lettres, alors que ces disciplines d&#233;pendaient des facult&#233;s de sciences. Il inscrit de fait la g&#233;ographie physique fran&#231;aise dans un milieu universitaire litt&#233;raire. A.. Cholley (1955) soulignera que la plupart des &#233;tudiants qu'il forme se sont orient&#233;s vers des monographies de g&#233;ographie descriptive r&#233;gionale. Conscient de l'importance d'&#233;largir la formation d'&#233;tudiants inscrits en facult&#233; de Lettres vers les sciences naturelles, De Martonne, insiste pour que l'Institut de g&#233;ographie de Paris soit un institut d'universit&#233; et non de facult&#233;.
&lt;br&gt;
Son r&#244;le au sein des institutions est consid&#233;rable tout au long de sa carri&#232;re : participation au comit&#233; de lecture des Annales de g&#233;ographie, fondation de l'Association de g&#233;ographes fran&#231;ais (1920), pr&#233;sidence de l'union g&#233;ographique internationale (1935-1952), pr&#233;sidence de la Soci&#233;t&#233; de g&#233;ographie (1947-1952). Au niveau international, sa carri&#232;re est contemporaine du d&#233;placement du p&#244;le d'excellence de la g&#233;ographie mondiale, avec le d&#233;clin de l'&#233;cole allemande et l'affirmation de &#171; l'&#233;cole fran&#231;aise &#187;. Un nombre consid&#233;rable de voyages et de missions &#224; l'&#233;tranger ponctuent sa carri&#232;re et contribuent &#224; r&#233;organiser l'enseignement de la g&#233;ographie dans de nombreux pays (Delfosse, 2001). Savant reconnu, il joue &#233;galement un r&#244;le important dans la red&#233;finition du trac&#233; des fronti&#232;res en Europe centrale, en tant qu'expert g&#233;ographe au sein du Comit&#233; d'&#233;tudes, apr&#232;s la premi&#232;re guerre mondiale.
L'&#339;uvre scientifique de De Martonne est tr&#232;s abondante (environ 150 ouvrages et articles). De Martonne, titulaire d'un doctorat &#232;s lettres en 1902 et d'un doctorat &#232;s sciences en 1907, a une production scientifique qui en fait un des premiers - et des derniers - g&#233;ographes &#224; pouvoir exercer une expertise sur tous les champs d'une g&#233;ographie en plein d&#233;veloppement. Il est admis &#224; l'acad&#233;mie des sciences en 1942. De Martonne s'int&#233;resse &#224; la g&#233;ographie r&#233;gionale (Carpates et Europe centrale) et r&#233;dige le tome IV de la G&#233;ographie Universelle (dir. P. Vidal de la Blache et L. Gallois) sur l'Europe centrale. Il &#233;crit en 1909 un Trait&#233; de G&#233;ographie Physique, ouvrage de r&#233;f&#233;rence qui conna&#238;tra au moins neuf r&#233;&#233;ditions, et qui consacre son ambition d'une g&#233;ographie physique regroupant la climatologie, la biog&#233;ographie, la zoologie, mais o&#249; la place principale (un tome entier !) revient &#224; la g&#233;omorphologie. A partir de l'&#233;dition de 1927, De Martonne confie la refonte du tome biog&#233;ographie &#224; Auguste Chevalier, botaniste et sp&#233;cialiste d'agronomie coloniale pour la biog&#233;ographie, et &#224; Lucien Cu&#233;not, biologiste, pour la zoog&#233;ographie. Avec la collaboration de Lucien Aufr&#232;re, il met au point l'indice d'aridit&#233; et la carte des r&#233;gions priv&#233;es d'&#233;coulement vers l'oc&#233;an (endor&#233;isme). Ce travail fait l'objet, entre 1925 et 1928, de sept publications, dont une dans la Geographical Review en 1927. Ces travaux sur l'aridit&#233; ont largement circul&#233; chez les g&#233;ographes et au-del&#224;. Ils font partie des r&#233;f&#233;rences cit&#233;es par les climatologistes am&#233;ricains (en particulier C. W. Thornthwaite) qui cherchent &#224; &#233;laborer une classification des climats plus d&#233;ductive et moins empirique. &lt;br&gt;
Sa conception de la G&#233;ographie rel&#232;ve, quant &#224; elle, d'une posture &#233;pist&#233;mologique &lt;strong&gt;&#171; r&#233;aliste &#187;&lt;/strong&gt;. La m&#233;thode g&#233;ographique est con&#231;ue sans discontinuit&#233; avec l'objet d'&#233;tude, et sans d&#233;construction de celui-ci. Comme les autres post-vidaliens, De Martonne consid&#232;re le r&#233;el comme un donn&#233;, ind&#233;pendant du chercheur, et directement saisissable. Cette insistance sur les r&#233;alit&#233;s concr&#232;tes fait de lui comme de L.Gallois un des garants de l'orthodoxie classique en G&#233;ographie (Orain, 2001).
Enseignant, organisateur et savant totalement d&#233;vou&#233; &#224; sa discipline, De Martonne a travaill&#233; &#224; l'autonomisation de la discipline par rapport &#224; l'histoire, notamment lors de la cr&#233;ation de l'agr&#233;gation de g&#233;ographie (1943). Il a contribu&#233; &#224; donner &#224; la g&#233;ographie fran&#231;aise deux traits qui ont eu une longue persistance : le poids de l'analyse g&#233;omorphologique et la grande place donn&#233;e aux explications naturalistes.
Pascal Marty&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		&lt;div class='rss_ps'&gt;&lt;p&gt;R&#233;f&#233;rences : &lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Baudelle Guy, Ozouf-Marignier Marie-Vic, Robic Marie-Claire (dir.), 2001. G&#233;ographes en pratiques (1870-1945). Le terrain, le livre, la Cit&#233;, Presses universitaires de Rennes
Cholley Andr&#233;, 1956. Emmanuel de Martonne, Annales de g&#233;ographie, n&#176; 347, p. 1-14.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Delfosse Claire, 2001, Emmanuel de Martonne, tisseur de r&#233;seaux internationaux de g&#233;ographes, in Baudelle G, Ozouf-Marignier M.-V., Robic M.-C., dir., G&#233;ographes en pratique (1870-1945). Le terrain, le livre, la Cit&#233;, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, p. 289-311.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Dresch Jean, 1975. Emmanuel de Martonne, in Les g&#233;ographes fran&#231;ais, Paris, CTHS, Bulletin de la section de g&#233;ographie, 81 : 35-48.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Orain Olivier, 2001, Emmanuel de Martonne, figure de l'orthodoxie &#233;pist&#233;mologique postvidalienne ?, in Baudelle G, Ozouf-Marignier M.-V., Robic M.-C., dir., G&#233;ographes en pratique (1870-1945). Le terrain, le livre, la Cit&#233;, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, p. 289-311.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.hypergeo.eu/squelettes-dist/puce.gif&quot; width=&quot;8&quot; height=&quot;11&quot; alt=&quot;-&quot; /&gt; Tissier, Jean-Louis, 1996. Martonne (Emmanuel de), in Jacques Julliard, Michel Winock (dir.), Dictionnaire des intellectuels fran&#231;ais, Paris, Seuil&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
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<item xml:lang="en">
		<title> Drainage Basin</title>
		<link>http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article483</link>
		<guid isPermaLink="true">http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?article483</guid>
		<dc:date>2010-06-24T11:51:33Z</dc:date>
		<dc:format>text/html</dc:format>
		<dc:language>en</dc:language>
		<dc:creator>Laurent Touchart</dc:creator>


		<dc:subject>Model</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Scale</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Mountain</dc:subject>
		<dc:subject>Drainage Basin</dc:subject>

		<description>In the wide sense, a drainage basin is a portion of space drained towards an outlet by way of a system of slopes; in the strict sense the drainage basin is the elementary portion of space made up of a topographical feature or features enabling drainage towards an outlet. The origin of the concept of the drainage basin (bassin versant in French) can be found with P.Buache, Louis XIVth's official geographer, in his notion of the &quot;river basin&quot; (bassin de fleuve). The scholars of the time (...)

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?rubrique78" rel="directory"&gt;Concepts&lt;/a&gt;

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&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot444" rel="tag"&gt;Mountain&lt;/a&gt;, 
&lt;a href="http://www.hypergeo.eu/spip.php?mot657" rel="tag"&gt;Drainage Basin&lt;/a&gt;

		</description>


 <content:encoded>&lt;div class='rss_texte'&gt;&lt;p&gt;In the wide sense, a drainage basin is a portion of space drained towards an outlet by way of a system of slopes; in the strict sense the drainage basin is the elementary portion of space made up of a topographical feature or features enabling drainage towards an outlet.
The origin of the concept of the drainage basin (bassin versant in French) can be found with P.Buache, Louis XIVth's official geographer, in his notion of the &quot;river basin&quot; (bassin de fleuve). The scholars of the time then took over the concept and used it to divide up the whole planet, tracing watersheds (divides, in American English) that were sometimes defined too theoretically, without verification in the field. However the success was such that the river basin became the essential unit for geographers in the way regional subdivision was apprehended. This excessive influence on human geography eventually led to its abandonment and neglect. The notion returned in the field of river geo-morphology in English-speaking countries, and, following the early work by W.M.Davies, it was the research by R.E.Horton and later R.J.Chorley that diffused what then came to be referred to in scientific literature the &quot;drainage basin&quot; for the British and the &quot;watershed&quot; in US English. The term &quot;watershed&quot; in British English refers to the water parting (as in the French &quot;ligne de partage des eaux&quot;), or the boundary between two drainage basins, known as the &quot;divide&quot; in American English. The two concepts, it is true, are closely linked, since the parting lines delineate the drainage basin and form its boundary. In France the use of the term &quot;bassin versant&quot; (close to the &quot;drainage basin&quot; in meaning) was promoted by the establishment of the Bassins-Versants Repr&#233;sentatifs et Exp&#233;rimentaux (BVRE) from the start of the 1960s. This corresponds, as in other countries, to the first detailed measures on experimental areas enabling calculation of water and transportation budgets, and the modelling of runoff, flow, and specific attrition rates. The need to quantify in the disciplines of hydrology and geomorphology imposed the use of the bassin versant in French, as in English in a non-dimensional sense. &lt;br&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Strictly speaking, the drainage basin is elementary, and therefore relatively small; this is indeed why it lends itself to mathematical &#171;&lt;strong&gt;modelling&lt;/strong&gt;&#187;. Large surface areas draining towards an outlet are referred to in French as &quot;bassins d'alimentation&quot; (or &quot;feeder basins&quot;). The largest basins in the world, the Amazon (6.2M km2 without the Tocantins), the Congo (3.6M km2), the Mississippi (3.3M km2) are obviously made up of numerous elementary drainage basins, but this is also true of much smaller river basins. The choice of term rests on a typically geographical question of scale, akin to the contrast between the range effect and the slope effect in &#171;&lt;strong&gt;mountain&lt;/strong&gt;&#187; area. The term &quot;bassin hydrographique&quot; (hydrographic basin), more widely used in French, could, without reference to dimension, group the notions of &quot;bassin d'alimentation&quot; (feeder basin) and &quot;bassin versant&quot; (drainage basin). However there is no real synonymy. Indeed, an elementary drainage basin may not have a permanent, concentrated, linear flow, while a &quot;hydrographic basin&quot; necessarily has a network of rivers and streams converging towards an outlet. English usage also makes a distinction between &quot;drainage basin&quot; and &quot;catchment basin&quot; (or catchment area). It can therefore be concluded from these various subtleties of usage that a basin is first of all an impluvium, a portion of terrestrial space on which precipitations fall, and which, by way of a system of slopes, and after interception, storage, and throughflow of variable durations, will feed the outlet. Land use clearly plays an important part in the interception of precipitations, and in runoff and throughflow coefficients. Groundwater storage generally forms the major part of temporary storage. According to the geographer J. Whittow, this is what constitutes the difference between the &quot;drainage basin&quot; which considers solely the surface area defined by the divide or watershed, and the &quot;catchment basin&quot; which also takes account of underground flows. For the French hydraulics specialist G.R&#233;m&#233;ni&#233;ras, this is exactly the distinction between the &quot;topographical drainage basin&quot; and the &quot;real drainage basin&quot;. As research progressed, it was the topographical drainage basin that for a long time focused most attention. This focus corresponds to a period of morphometric research, into both the shape of the area and its variable compactness (the Gravelius coefficient), and into the &quot;stream ordering&quot; of the rivers draining the surface area (the &quot;orders&quot; in Horton, Shumm and Strahler). Subsequently, and up to the present day, the main body of research has focused on integrating, and if possible quantifying, all the interrelations among the different elements in the system, in particular the influence of land use within the basin. Thus the drainage basin has become a notion that is close to that of a &#171;&lt;strong&gt;hydrosystem&lt;/strong&gt;&#187;.
&lt;br&gt;
Laurent Touchart&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
		
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